(1986). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Speci cally, many scientists believe (Henting, 1997; Bruner, 2000; Stoll & Fink, 2000; Faulstich, 1999) that high-quality and successful changes in education can be achieved by introducing a culture of learning which espouses the holism and integrity of human beings. Discourse and Organization. Cohen, D. K. The school leader is therefore at the fulcrum point, subject to exogenous effects of culture, refracted in part through his or her leadership development and personal cultural locus, and in turn engaging with endogenous culture in the school and its community. Understanding international differences in culture would provide a basis for planning cultural fit in preparation and development programs. & In many countries the principal may indeed be key. Macro Relations: Culture and Globalization, Culture and Leadership Global Perspectives, Preparing Leadership for Cultural Fluency, Culture and Leadership Issues and Future Research, International Handbook on the Preparation and Development of School Leaders, Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming, House, Paul, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, Dorfman & Mansour 2004, http://www.thunderbird.edu/wwwfiles/ms/globe/Links/process.pdf, http://www.ucea.org/JRLE/pdf/vol1/issue1/Tippeconic.pdf, http://www.ucea.org/JRLE/pdf/vol1/issue1/Walker.pdf, conceptually, through the ideas that are valued and promoted, verbally, through the language, terminology and discourses in use, behaviorally, through the activities, social interactions and rituals that occur, visually, through the designs and styles adopted by the organization in its physical and material components. Cultural sensitivity demands consideration of how leadership is dispersed amongst the players within schools and the regional administration in a specific context before designing national and local systems in response. The model identifies seven dimensions of organizational context that shape resultant culture, based on a series of key questions: These questions provide a helpful analytical framework, which can be applied in most educational contexts, and which seeks to identify the underlying values and beliefs within a school. The mechanics of diffusion and the appropriateness of the results have been subject to unequal research interest. Bryant (1998) suggests that as a consequence school leadership as conceived in the US is unlikely to be appropriate to Native American educational leaders whose culture and consequent conception of leadership is very different. (1998). G, Crow Images of Organization, Powell, A. G. Although researchers are just beginning to document the effectiveness of the PLC culture, early indications show that it has a significant positive effect on student learning (Lee & Smith, 1996; Louis & Marks, 1998; Stoll et al., 2006; Wiley, 2001). Fullan, M. Tin, L. Kantamara, P. However, boundaries are permeable. ), Handbook of Leadership Development (pp. Educational Management & Administration, Bush, T. Curricula and delivery which are founded on a set of cultural assumptions, even those which are dominant within the region or country, are likely to miss the mark for many. It takes the view that culture can be unified and that dissent, anomaly, conflicts of interest or ambiguity are viewed. The (racially neutral) politics of education: a critical race Theory perspective. Stoll and Fink (1992) think that school effectiveness should have done more to make clear how schools can become effective. & & Leadership and Diversity; Challenging Theory and Practice in Education, Macpherson, R. The New Meaning of Educational Change (3rd ed.). The purpose of this book is to re-orient the current agenda in education towards learning. The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. R. Hoyle, E. As within continents or regions, within each nation, a common culture cannot be assumed, the differences between the culture of Native Americans, Hispanic and African American women and that of white males within the United States being an example given above. Understanding Schools as Organisations The Australian Principals Centre: A model for the accreditation and professional development of the principalship. Educational leadership: an Islamic perspective. Hanges Buckingham: Open University Press. (1996). This is but one element of the interplay of competing values, priorities and hierarchies of power which influence culture. London: Sage. Much leadership theory reflects Anglophone and particularly US culture which Hoppe (2004, p. 335) suggests is consistently described as being individualistic, egalitarian, performance derived, comfortable with change, and action-and-data-oriented. (2001, October). Cultural differences can be observed at a range of organizational scales. & Once the inputs are understood and the intended outputs identified, the major challenge for the school leader is then to organize and operationalize the processes within the school to enable pupils to travel from their cultural starting point to the output position the school seeks to achieve. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stoll and Fink identified 10 cultural norms that influence school improvement (see summary in Panel 2). a set of shared values and preferred actions among members of a society that largely determines among other things, the boundaries within which leader development is possible. Gender and race in leadership preparation: a constrained discourse. , & C. You can find out more in our Privacy Policy. (Eds. Collard (2006), for example, contends that much of the global level educational development through programs of agencies such as UNESCO and the World Bank is based on an import model which he portrays as a tidal wave of western values, sweeping away existing cultural environments. & According to Mortimore (1991), a lot of improvement efforts have failed because research results were not translated adequately into guidelines for educational practice. It would appear that teachers have one view, government another, and various segments of the community still another. Nor is it amoral. Hoppe (2004) suggests that experiential learning proves enjoyable and effective for US leaders while French and German leaders often view this approach as time-wasting childs play (p. 353). Commission on Educational Issues. Despite the widespread acknowledgement that culture varies considerably and that leadership preparation and development could be adjusted in relation to the culturally embedded ontological, epistemological and axiological differences between cultures, the content, method of delivery and assessment of preparation and development shows relatively little variation throughout the world (Bush & Jackson, 2002). Boosting pupil's progress development Working together to respond to changing context Know where they are going and having the will and skill to get there Possess norms of improving schools1.MOVING REFERS ON THE FOLLOWING: Mentoring is therefore flavored by ease and acceptance of the views of seniors but sensitivity to negative feedback. & Schein, E. H. Its view of the nature of truth and reality how does it define what is true and what is not and how is truth defined in the context of the social or natural world? The product will be a mosaic of sub-cultures, which may reinforce the cultural objectives of the whole school or, in some cases, appear as counter cultures that challenge the organizational hegemony. But what is an ineffective school? (2004). In parallel, preparation and development sometimes include an element of raising awareness of cultures deemed to be other than that of the majority or the dominant group, what Stier (2003, p. 84) refers to as content-competencies, generally targeted at increasing knowledge of minority groups within the region or nation. By contrast Singaporean cultures emphasis on collective action and respect for seniority underpins acceptance and effective use of mentoring as an important mode of development, defined as a process whereby an expert or senior person guides a less experienced leader (Tin, 2001). It is also a response to the greater sensitivity brought about by the increasing diversity within many societies and the insistence that a perspective based on a single dominant culture risks sustaining a hegemonic, ineffective and excluding approach. (1997). Bolam Coleman, C. Cultural influences on organizational leadership. Such a knowledge base would allow theory to be developed in a more culturally aware way. (1999). It will therefore involve engagement with the moral choices which lie at the heart of leadership. Dorfman School culture, therefore, is most clearly seen in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems, and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus (Stoll & Fink, 1998) or simply the distinctive identity of . International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 367381. Wisdom gained, wisdom given: instituting PBL in a Chinese culture. Scheins model provides a greater level of sophistication by focusing on a challenging interrogation of the culture of the school and linking culture more strongly to underpinning values and beliefs. In the period since the 1970s many commentators have created sometimes a single description of school culture, and sometimes typologies providing alternate descriptions. Such decisions will be founded on a concept of leadership that embraces far more than a capacity to competently manage the technical aspects of instruction. Introducing human rights education in Confucian society of Taiwan: its implications for ethical leadership in education. Hodgkinson (2001) argues that culture is always determining, subliminally and subconsciously, our value orientation and judgments. Leaders interact with culture at the organizational level both in terms of efforts to include the multiple cultures which may be present and also to sustain, adapt or change the dominant culture. She challenges whether any classification of humans is tenable in the light of increasing certainty deriving from advances in natural science that whatever taxonomy is adopted, the complexity of human beings, biologically, linguistically and culturally, cannot be placed into easily described categories: Daily challenges for school leaders.I In The first approach led to selection of 25 most frequently found publications on the school as learning organisation and/or learning school. Hoppe, M. H. Journal of Educational Administration, 36(1), 828. In (1998). Challenging the boundaries of sameness: leadership through valuing difference. M. In the absence of a similarly complex or authoritative study of the cultural factors in educational leadership, the design of much preparation and development seems to adhere to an assumed commonality and to avoid detailed engagement with the culturally contingent (Lumby et al., forthcoming), resulting in an international curriculum for school leadership preparation (Bush & Jackson, 2002, pp. For example, the balance of time given to study of the legislation relevant to schooling or to the implications of a particular faith, whether Islam, Christianity, or any other, will embed values within the curriculum through the choice of priority reflected in the time allocated. Journal of Educational Administration, 334(5), 1231. Walker, J. ), Educational management: Redefining theory, policy and practice (pp. Wong, K-C. Downloaded by [Teldan Inc] at 05:45 14 September 2015 . (2000). (1998). Such an approach to cultural change is, of course, a key component of western approaches to educational leadership, and has been criticized for representing a fundamental misunderstanding of what culture is and can be. , In a strict sense we might argue that the culture of every educational institution is unique, derived from the context in which the school operates and the values of those who have led or been part of the organization over time. ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. A more flexible and subtle shaping will be needed. A. 206207), There are no essential, innate and immutable characteristics of race, age, gender, disability or other demographic categories. At the international scale, for example, the work of Hofstede (1991), has sought to provide a broad general analysis of national organizational cultures. , & , Cultural globalization is the international transfer of values and beliefs, and while strictly it is multi-directional it is typically perceived as dominated by the spread of western, particularly American, values and symbols across the globe. Handy, C. The challenge for leaders, therefore, is to manage that change in terms of speed, direction or nature to support the organizations goals. It is probably for this reason that . International Studies in Educational Administration. , & Bridges, E. London: Paul Chapman. Effects of cultural diversity on in-class communication and student project team dynamics: Creating synergy in the diverse classroom. In part this reflects a revolt against the perceived global homogenization of leadership. R. J. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Bryant, M. Much of it has been misdirected and some of it wasteful. If leaders believe that a dominant culture is identifiable or achievable, and that it is a single, stable and unifying phenomenon, then changing it becomes a matter of choice, but relatively straightforward and without any moral ramifications. Cultural Influences on Leadership and Organizations: Project Globe. Javidan Hallinger, P. The GLOBE project was undertaken in a business context. Secondly, investigations of the cultural fit of transmission and process models of learning would support those responsible for design in making more appropriate choices. (2003). As in the GLOBE project, subgroups within nations might be also identified for inclusion. Revisiting the Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. Multiple perspectives on values and ethical leadership. , However, process models may not mesh with some cultures. (2005). , (2001). In the education sector, the PLC provides a pathway to a learning organisation: one which comprises 'a group of people who take an active, re ective, collaborative, Professing educational leadership: conceptions of power. School culture, therefore, is most clearly "seen" in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus. P. W. (1996). What is the significance of time is the organization most oriented towards the past, the present or the future? Commentary. , His critique suggests that there is insufficient time given in such an approach to understanding existing cultures, both at a general level and in terms of the underpinning key components and variables, and the consequence is cultural imperialism. Journal of School Leadership, Coleman, M. Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind. In Dorfman and House (2004) suggest three competing propositions: that cultural congruence in development and leadership is more effective; that cultural difference can be stimulating and bring about positive change; that leadership is universal activity. International Studies in Educational Administration, Thomas, D. C. | Cookies Walnut Elementary 625 N. Walnut St. La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2369. One of the best known is that applied to schools by Handy and Aitken (1986), which draws on observations across diverse organizations. Story In Goddard, T. Conceptualizing the schools culture through such a systems approach helps clarify the challenges for school leaders in relation to culture. This search included empirical studies and theoretical pieces. International Journal of Leadership In Education, 4(4),297307. Decisions to encourage acceptance or critique of the dominant culture and its effect lie at the moral heart of supporting the education of leaders. Two examples will suffice to illustrate this, though. , & Its view of the nature of human activity does it believe that people behave in a dominant/proactive mode or a passive/fatalistic mode? ), The Life and Work of Teachers (pp. N. Panel 3. Gupta Gupta Leaders navigate cultural choices which are always constrained. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(2), 163187. Assessment is also increasingly against competences which are exported internationally (MacPherson et al., 2007). (2000) Leadership and Culture in Chinese Education. , It is characterized by very limited research at the within school subunit scale, and by the adoption of generalized models of culture from business and management disciplines at whole-school or national/international scales of analysis. (2003). Effective. & Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. It is "the way we do things around here" and often defined as 'the basic assumptions, norms and values and cultural artifacts of a school that . P.J. (2006). (1996). For most leaders this provides perhaps the most challenging dimension of leadership, for it is necessary to understand what those cultures are, why they exist and what aspects of them can or cannot, or should and should not, be subject to change to achieve the schools goals. org/10.4135/9781446219362 Keywords: (1996). There is also a preference to face facts whether positive or negative. & (2006). Litvin (1997) attacks such essentialism, ascribing the taxonomy of groups to a Western Platonic purportedly scientific paradigm. (Eds. Hanges, S. & Morgan, G. School Culture. However, a model which merely identifies cultural elements doesnt take account of the dynamic nature of culture and it is useful therefore to consider culture in the context of a systems perspective on organizations. Prosser, J. Imperial Middle School 1450 S. Schoolwood Dr. La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2344. Bajunid, I. ing the micropolitic and the school culture as key components to study school improvement . Similarly, Louque (2002) challenges the appropriateness of the culture embedded in the selection and development of educational leaders to Hispanic and African American Women. Hodgkinson, C. Subordinates expect superiors to act autocratically. Global forces, national mediations and the management of educational institutions. A challenge to dominant cultures and the evolution of cultures which are seen as fitting will be achieved only by persistent efforts to increase the intercultural fluency of all involved, in part by increasing the evidence base, and in part through detailed translation of such evidence to impact the design and delivery of the development of leaders. In contrast the assessment of educational leaders often assumes that consideration of cultural fit is unnecessary in relation to standards which are uncritically accepted as international. There have, of course, been many more attempts to categorize school cultures, each offering a particular perspective to illuminate the nature and effects of culture. (2004). of the teachers, students and school community. , C. The first proposes four 'ideal type' school cultures, based on two underlying domains; the second, a more elaborate and dynamic model, proposes two 'ideal type' school cultures, based on five underlying structures. In another region of China, Hong Kong, teacher contact hours are considerably higher and leadership is more firmly placed with the principal. Rather, cultural competency, the ability to recognize, analyze and engage purposefully with culture at the macro and micro levels is a foundational skill, which positions educational leadership as critical contributors to shaping society and not just the school. At the operational scale, the leader may focus on the culture within the institution in order to facilitate the achievement of institutional improvement, with culture conceptualized as an agent of change. (2007). Sapre and Ranade (2001, p. 379) deplore the fact that there is very little in modern Indian education that is truly rooted in the culture, tradition and genius of its people. More research of this kind, exploring fit not only to the dominant culture of the nation/region, but also fit to the multiple cultures within the nation or region would provide a potentially powerful antidote to programs which are currently not culturally inclusive. (2003). Lumby with Coleman (2007) identifies the emotional dimensions of rage, confusion, and anxiety in engaging with alternate cultures (DiTomaso & Hooijberg, 1996; Osler, 2004; Prasad & Mills, 1997; Rusch, 2004). 5167). Notwithstanding these different positions, knowledge of how leadership is conceptualized and enacted locally is a sine qua non of successful design.
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